Author name: TopperNest

Infectious diseases remain one of the major challenges to global health. They can affect almost every organ system and are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. This unit focuses on central nervous system infections, systemic bacterial diseases, urinary tract infections, and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Infectious Diseases Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms, […]

The human body constantly strives for balance, but various diseases can disrupt its structure and function. Unit 4 focuses on three important areas of pathology: inflammatory bowel and liver diseases, bone and joint disorders, and the principles of cancer. Understanding these conditions helps in both prevention and treatment, as they affect millions of people worldwide.

Human health is shaped by the proper functioning of many interconnected systems. Disturbances in the blood, hormones, brain, and digestive system can lead to life-threatening or chronic disorders. This unit explores some of the most important diseases affecting these systems, including their causes, mechanisms, and consequences. Haematological Disease A hematological disease is a disorder of

Human health depends on the proper functioning of vital systems such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys. Any disturbance in these organs can lead to serious and chronic conditions that require medical attention. In this unit, we explore some of the most important disorders affecting the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, and renal system, focusing on

Cells are the fundamental units of life, and their ability to adapt and respond to stress determines the health of tissues and organs. When cells are exposed to harmful stimuli, they may undergo injury, adaptation, or death depending on the severity and duration of the insult. At the same time, the body has built-in mechanisms

Enzymes are often called the molecular workhorses of life. They are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions inside living organisms, making life processes possible at body temperature and normal physiological conditions. Without enzymes, reactions like digestion, energy production, and DNA replication would occur far too slowly to sustain life. This unit explores the properties, classification,

Nucleic acids are the molecules of life — they store, transmit, and express genetic information. Without DNA and RNA, cells would lack instructions for protein synthesis, inheritance, and regulation of cellular processes. This unit explores the biosynthesis and breakdown of nucleotides, organization of the genome, replication, transcription, and translation, highlighting how these processes ensure life

Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions that sustain life. Among these, lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism play vital roles in energy production, cellular function, and synthesis of important biological molecules. A clear understanding of these pathways not only explains how our body utilizes fats and proteins but also sheds light on clinical

Carbohydrates are the primary energy source of the human body. They undergo a series of biochemical pathways to release energy in the form of ATP. Understanding these pathways is essential to grasp how the body maintains energy balance, stores glucose, and regulates blood sugar. Alongside this, biological oxidation explains how electrons flow through the electron