Author name: TopperNest

Biological systems are powered and maintained by an extraordinary set of molecules that not only provide structure but also energy for life processes. Two of the most fundamental concepts in biochemistry are biomolecules—the building blocks of life—and bioenergetics, which explains how energy is generated and utilized in cells. Together, they form the basis of cellular […]

Carboxylic acids and amines are two important classes of organic compounds with widespread applications in pharmaceuticals, biochemistry, and industry. Carboxylic acids are best known for their acidity and role in metabolic cycles, while aliphatic amines are fundamental as building blocks of drugs and neurotransmitters. Understanding their properties, reactivity, and applications helps bridge basic organic chemistry

Carbonyl compounds form one of the most important classes of organic molecules. They are characterized by the carbonyl group (C=O), which is highly reactive due to the polarity of the bond. The two major types are: These compounds are not only central in organic reactions but also serve as key intermediates in pharmaceuticals, perfumes, food

Organic chemistry is filled with compounds that play a vital role in both laboratory and industrial applications. Among them, alkyl halides and alcohols are two highly important classes. They not only serve as starting materials for many reactions but also find direct use in pharmaceuticals, solvents, and industrial products. In this unit, we will focus

Organic chemistry is built on the study of hydrocarbons—compounds made of carbon and hydrogen. Among them, alkanes, alkenes, and conjugated dienes hold special importance because they not only form the foundation of organic structures but also demonstrate fascinating reactivity patterns. Their study helps us understand reaction mechanisms, stability, and applications in pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, and polymer

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, which form the backbone of life as well as countless industrial and pharmaceutical products. To study these compounds systematically, chemists classify them, give them unique names through nomenclature systems, and understand how their structures can differ yet share the same molecular formula (isomerism). This unit introduces three

The continuation of life depends on reproduction, and in higher organisms like humans, it is carried out through a highly specialized reproductive system. Both male and female reproductive systems work in harmony, regulated by sex hormones, to ensure the processes of gamete formation, fertilization, pregnancy, and childbirth. Alongside reproduction, genetics plays a central role in