B. Pharmacy

Cells are the fundamental units of life, and their ability to adapt and respond to stress determines the health of tissues and organs. When cells are exposed to harmful stimuli, they may undergo injury, adaptation, or death depending on the severity and duration of the insult. At the same time, the body has built-in mechanisms […]

Enzymes are often called the molecular workhorses of life. They are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions inside living organisms, making life processes possible at body temperature and normal physiological conditions. Without enzymes, reactions like digestion, energy production, and DNA replication would occur far too slowly to sustain life. This unit explores the properties, classification,

Nucleic acids are the molecules of life — they store, transmit, and express genetic information. Without DNA and RNA, cells would lack instructions for protein synthesis, inheritance, and regulation of cellular processes. This unit explores the biosynthesis and breakdown of nucleotides, organization of the genome, replication, transcription, and translation, highlighting how these processes ensure life

Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions that sustain life. Among these, lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism play vital roles in energy production, cellular function, and synthesis of important biological molecules. A clear understanding of these pathways not only explains how our body utilizes fats and proteins but also sheds light on clinical

Carbohydrates are the primary energy source of the human body. They undergo a series of biochemical pathways to release energy in the form of ATP. Understanding these pathways is essential to grasp how the body maintains energy balance, stores glucose, and regulates blood sugar. Alongside this, biological oxidation explains how electrons flow through the electron

Biological systems are powered and maintained by an extraordinary set of molecules that not only provide structure but also energy for life processes. Two of the most fundamental concepts in biochemistry are biomolecules—the building blocks of life—and bioenergetics, which explains how energy is generated and utilized in cells. Together, they form the basis of cellular

Carboxylic acids and amines are two important classes of organic compounds with widespread applications in pharmaceuticals, biochemistry, and industry. Carboxylic acids are best known for their acidity and role in metabolic cycles, while aliphatic amines are fundamental as building blocks of drugs and neurotransmitters. Understanding their properties, reactivity, and applications helps bridge basic organic chemistry

Carbonyl compounds form one of the most important classes of organic molecules. They are characterized by the carbonyl group (C=O), which is highly reactive due to the polarity of the bond. The two major types are: These compounds are not only central in organic reactions but also serve as key intermediates in pharmaceuticals, perfumes, food